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Islam: Feminism and Women Religious Studies
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Women and Islam (Part 1): Introduction and pre-Islamic attitudes to womenInformation: This is Part 1 in a series of articles exploring the relationship between women and Islam. After an introduction looking at some of the issues and challenges surrounding the debate about women and Islam, we review the way women were treated in 7th Century Arabia, and some of the social and religious influence contributing to this. All quotations from the Qur'an are identified by 'Q', and are taken from the translation by M. H. Shakir. Introduction 'Muslim women have become an absolute symbol of oppression, and distorted images of them permeate news coverage.' (Arzu Merali, director of research for the Islamic Human Rights Commission) Most non-Muslims when asked about Islamic attitudes to women, would probably say that Islam is a religion which oppresses women; some might even say it borders on the misogynistic. Images of Muslim women wearing hijab (head and body coverings) are often used as evidence that they are being oppressed (largely by men), and that Islam does not promote equality amongst the sexes.
Women wearing hijab: A symbol of oppression? (Source: www.persecution.org) Stories of the Taliban in Afghanistan, who dictate (and limit) in very specific ways what Muslim women can and cannot do, also add fuel to the fire, and further reinforce the perceived oppression of women under Islam. However, as most Muslims are keen to point out, one should not confuse the beliefs and practices of a small minority, with Islam itself: 'Anyone wishing to understand Islam must first separate the religion from the cultural norms and style of a society. Female genital mutilation is still practised in certain pockets of Africa and Egypt, but viewed as an inconceivable horror by the vast majority of Muslims. Forced marriages may still take place in certain Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities, but would be anathema to Muslim women from other backgrounds.' (Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood, Islam, Culture and Women) Although the Qur'an explicitly states that both men and women are equal in every way before God, there are verses in it which allow men to have more than one wife (polygamy), and in some cases sanction the veiling and beating of women. All this has further undermined Islam's egalitarian claims, in the eyes of non-Muslims. Yet as with any teaching about the nature and role of women in Scripture, the problem Muslims (and non-Muslims) face is whether these should be understood as referring to a particular cultural situation in the past, or whether they prescribe social and religious norms which should continue to be practiced and believed by everyone today. Probably the biggest stumbling block in trying to unpack the truth of any Scripture, is the temptation to use 'tradition' as means through which to understand and interpret verses or texts, when doing so may actually prevent people from understanding them in a more consistent (and relevant) manner. Most Muslims would say that rather than oppress women, Islam actually liberates them. As evidence for this, they draw attention to the social and religious situation women found themselves in in pre-Islamic Arabia, and how Islam significantly improved things for them. 'Women may not be equal in the manner defined by Western feminists, but their core differences from men are acknowledged, and they have rights of their own that do not apply to men.' (Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood, Islam, Culture and Women) Probably the biggest challenge facing non-Muslims who are genuinely interested trying to understand Islamic attitudes to women, is precisely that; they are not Muslims. Although Islam clearly raised the status of women in the past, it is hard for many non-Muslims to appreciate how it continues to do this when they see women wearing Hijab (head and body coverings). At the same time, many Muslims are being confronted with worldviews which do not share their fundamental beliefs and values, and it is here that one finds them either retreating into the past (Fundamentalism), or seeking to mine their tradition for new ways to understand and practise it. Advertisement Pre-Islamic attitudes to women Whilst it is it is true that prior to the 7th Century BCE women had little or no social status amongst various tribes in the Arabian peninsula (something Islam is said to have changed), this was the not the case for all of them. For example, Khadijah, the first wife of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), was a wealthy widow who asked Muhammad to marry him when she was 40, and he was 25 years old. This shows that prior to the arrival of Islam, women in Muhammad's community (the Quraysh) had the right to inheritance, were able to be independently wealthy, and able to pick and choose their husbands. Khadijah was also a very successful trader and employed many people (notably Muhammad) to represent her business interests across the Arabian Peninsula. As such, she had power and influence amongst her people (and also over men) and was clearly not confined to a domestic role (even after she was married). Some scholars go so far as to say that Khadijah was Muhammad's only wife, because she required him sign a prenuptial agreement saying he would not marry any other woman while she was alive. Khadijah was the first person to accept Muhammad as the Prophet of God, making her the first convert to Islam (or first Muslim). This is interestingly paralleled in Christianity, where women were said to be the first to accept Jesus' resurrection from the dead (E.g. Luke 24:1-52). However, the experience of Khadijah (and no doubt other Quraysh women) was not the norm as far as most women in the Arabian Peninsula were concerned. For instance, we know from the Qur'an that some Arab tribes had such a low opinion of women, that female infanticide was even being practiced by them (something eventually condemned in the Qur'an): 'When a daughter is announced to one of them his face becomes black and he is full of wrath. He hides himself from the people because of the evil of that which is announced to him. Shall he keep it with disgrace or bury it (alive) in the dust? Now surely evil is what they judge? (Q16:58f) In her book Women and Gender in Islam, Leila Ahmed argues that one reason the status of women declined amongst Arab tribes, was due to an emphasis on the importance of military combat (which was a largely male-dominated sphere of activity). This led to a class-based society, in which men began to see themselves as protectors of property, women and children, which eventually gave rise to the notion that women were yet another element of a man's personal property. Ultimately this led to women being forced into a domestic role centered around the home, as men had put themselves in charge of everything else.
Arab women working a hand mill (www.lifeintheholyland.com) Of course, in treating women as the possession of men it became necessary to distinguish between those who already belonged to someone, and those who did not. Under Assyrian Law (circa. 1200 BCE), women who 'belonged' to a man, such as wives, daughters and concubines (a women kept in a harem for sexual purposes) were required to be veiled, whereas prostitutes and slaves were left unveiled. As such, the veil served not only to distinguish between available and unavailable women (usually for sexual purposes), but also respectable and unrespectable women. Although Assyrian Law allowed wives to be physically punished, and permitted men to decide if their ex-wife would get anything following a divorce, women were still able to own property, enter into contracts and be called upon as witnesses. However, after the Iranian conquest of Mesopotamia, and under the influence of Zoroastrianism, Arab women soon lost most of these rights and instead began to be treated more as property themselves. They were also treated as those intended simply to fulfill a sexual and reproductive role in society (even being loaned out to other men for sex or to look after their children). Furthermore, women were expected to fulfill this role, as any who did not found themselves unable to fulfill another function/role in society. In light of this it unsurprising that many women found themselves being forced into getting married. Zoroastrians who came into contact with Christian women who had taken a vow of chastity did not try to force them to give up their faith, but instead tried to get them to marry and give up their virginity. By the time Muhammad was born, most Arab women were totally dependent on men, had little say in who they married, were confined to their homes and had little (if any) life outside of it (other than to attend births and marriages), and had no right to inheritance. Although girls were educated, this was basically to enable them to fulfill their domestic role (E.g. They would be taught to count in order to barter at the market). As we have already seen, the birth of a boy was usually regarded more highly than that of a girl amongst some of the tribes. It is important to keep in mind that this was not the situation all Arab women found themselves in. Some women did find avenues of work outside the home, for example working for and with other women as attendants in the public baths, or as doctors and midwives, or (as in the case of Khadijah) in various business ventures. Advertisement Arab women not only suffered under Zoroastrianism, but also as a result of certain Christian (and Jewish) beliefs.
The chief reason for this is found in the Bible, where we read that women (not men) are to be held responsible for sin entering the world. Genesis chapter 3 records that woman (Eve) ate the forbidden fruit, and then persuaded man (Adam) to do the same (Genesis 3:6). As a result of this, the Bible says that humans became alienated from God, from each other and also from the world.
In light of the Genesis account some Christian apologists argued that women cannot be trusted, and should be subordinate to men in spiritual matters; so much so that they should even be denied key leadership roles in the church. For example, in his first letter to Timothy the Apostle Paul advises him not allow women to teach, not to allow them to have authority over men, and also to ensure they remain silent in congregations; and all this because Eve is said to have led Adam astray: 'A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam was not the one deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and became a sinner. But women will be saved through childbearing - if they continue in faith, love and holiness with propriety.' (1 Timothy 2:11-15) In the Patristic Era of the Church (circa. 1st - 8th Century CE), anti-woman rhetoric was common. For instance, Tertullian (circa. 160 - 225 CE) called women, 'the devil's gateway' and 'the first deserter of the divine law' (On the Apparel of Women, Book 1). Irenaeus (d. circa. 200 CE) claimed that women could not be trusted in spiritual matters, because they are easily deceived and drawn away from the truth (Against Heresies, Book 1:13). Elsewhere the Third Century text the Didascalia (Catholic Teaching of the Twelve Apostles and Holy Disciples of Our Saviour) says that women should not be preachers and teachers in the Church, because Jesus appointed only men (the 12 disciples) to spread his message to the world and that, 'if it had been necessary that women should teach, then our Teacher would have directed them to instruct along with [them].' (Didascalia 3:6:1–2 [Bracket mine]). Also adding to the oppression and subordination of women by the Church, was the second account of the creation of humanity in Genesis 2 (the first being found in Genesis 1), where it says that woman was created from man to be his helper: 'The LORD God said, "It is not good for the man to be alone. I will make a helper suitable for him."... So the LORD God caused the man to fall into a deep sleep; and while he was sleeping, he took one of the man's ribs and closed up the place with flesh. Then the LORD God made a woman from the rib he had taken out of the man, and he brought her to the man.' (Genesis 2:18-22) Although all of humanity was said to be created in the 'image of God' (Genesis 1:27), men regarded themselves as being closer to God, and more able to understand and communicate the Divine Will than women. Based on the Genesis account, many Jews also believe that women are responsible for sin and suffering entering the world. In light of this, Orthodox Judaism even has a prayer which men can pray to thank G-d that they were not born a woman. 'Blessed are You, O Lord our God, Ruler of the Universe, Who did not make me a woman.' (From the Aleinu-Adoration, a Jewish prayer of blessing) It was against this oppressive backdrop of social and religious attitudes to women, that the message of Islam began to be revealed to Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula in 610 CE. |
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